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Tesla Model S
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The Tesla Model S is a battery-powered liftback car produced by Tesla, Inc. It was introduced on June 22, 2012, and is positioned as Tesla's flagship model.

In 2013, the Model S became the first electric car to top the monthly new-car-sales ranking in any country, leading twice in Norway, in September and December 2013 and in Denmark in December 2015. Sales passed 250,000 units in September 2018. The Model S was the top-selling plug-in electric car worldwide in 2015 and 2016, although it was later surpassed by the Model 3.

In an early review of the Model S, Consumer Reports declared, "This car performs better than anything we've ever tested before. Let me repeat that: Not just the best electric car, but the best car. It does just about everything really, really well." In their Owner Satisfaction survey owners have consistently rated Teslas at, or near, the top rankings. In 2019, Motor Trend named the 2013 Tesla Model S the ultimate "Car of the Year" over the magazine's entire 70-year history. It received a refresh in June 2021.

History

Introduction

Model S was codenamed WhiteStar before its release. It was officially announced on June 30, 2008. The prototype vehicle was displayed on March 26, 2009. The exclusive premier was held at Tesla's Menlo Park store on April 8, 2009.

In May 2010 Tesla announced it would produce the Model S at the former NUMMI plant in Fremont, California, which became known as the Tesla Factory.

In 2007, Tesla announced plans to build Model S sedans starting in 2009, but production was repeatedly delayed to 2011. The first ten customers received their cars at the Fremont factory on June 22, 2012, at the official launch. Production grew from 15–20 cars completed per week in August 2012 to about 1,000 cars per week in 2015.

In 2012, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) range for the base model was 208 mi (335 km) while the longer range model was 265 miles (426 km). Musk claimed that the Model S battery offered twice the energy density of the Nissan Leaf's, with more than double the range, increased by a low drag coefficient, motor efficiency and rolling resistance. The original battery was similar to the Panasonic NCR18650B cell that offered an energy density of 265 Wh/kg. Analysts estimated battery costs to be around 21–22% of the car cost. The 60 kWh battery was guaranteed for eight years or 125,000 miles (200,000 km), while the 85 kWh was guaranteed for eight years and unlimited miles. In 2012, Tesla began building a network of 480-volt charging stations, called Tesla Superchargers, to facilitate long-distance travel.

The Center Display was powered by a Nvidia Tegra 3 3D Visual Computing Module (VCM), while the instrument cluster was driven by a separate Nvidia Tegra 2 VCM. The Tegra system on a chip (SoC) integrated eight specialized processors, including a multi-core ARM CPU, a GPU, and dedicated audio, video and image processors.

The Tesla Model S was the 2013 World Green Car of the Year, 2013 Motor Trend Car of the Year, Automobile magazine's 2013 Car of the Year, Time Magazine's Best 25 Inventions of the Year 2012, and Consumer Reports' top-scoring car in road testing. In 2015, Car and Driver named the Model S the Car of the Century. After not recommending the Model S in 2015 due to poor reliability, one year later, Consumer Reports added the car to its recommended list.

All-wheel Drive Update and Subsequent Changes

On October 9, 2014, Tesla introduced "Dual Drive" all-wheel drive (AWD) versions of the Model S 60, 85, and P85 models, designated by a D at the end of the model number (the P represented performance). Autopilot arrived in September 2014, supported by cameras, forward looking radar and ultrasonic acoustic location sensors that provided a 360-degree view.

Deliveries of the P85D started in December 2014, with the 85D models following in February 2015, and the 70D models in April 2015. On April 8, 2015, Tesla discontinued the Model S 60.

In June 2015, Tesla said that Model S cars had traveled over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km), the first all-electric car to reach that total. (In 2014 the hybrid-electric Chevy Volt had travelled 1 billion miles, but only 629 million were all-electric miles, while Nissan said the all-electric Leaf had accumulated 625 million total miles.) Global Model S sales passed 100,000 units in 2015, and 150,000 in November 2016. The 200,000 milestone was achieved by early in the fourth quarter of 2017.

In July 2015, Tesla announced its goal to make a Model S powertrain that lasted for one million miles. The 2015 update introduced electromechanical brakes.

In 2015, Tesla introduced a 70 kWh battery to replace the existing 60 kWh batteries and base 60 kWh Model S vehicles. It introduced a 90 kWh battery as a "range upgrade" and explained that the 6% energy increase was due to "improved cell chemistry" and the introduction of silicon into the cell's graphite anode. The 60 and 60D returned in 2016 with a software-limited, upgradeable 75 kWH battery and the "Bioweapon Defense Mode" air filter.

In April 2016, Tesla removed the black nose cone and added a body colored fascia, commonly referred to as a facelifted Tesla. The front fascia has a similar design as the Model X, adding adaptive LED headlights. A HEPA cabin air filtration system was added. The standard charger increased from 40 to 48 amps, speeding charging at higher-amperage outlets. Two ash wood interior options were added. In August Tesla announced the P100D with the Ludicrous mode option, a 100 kWh battery with 315 miles (507 km) of range, weighing 625 kg in a 0.40 m³ volume; a density of 160 Wh/kg.

In April 2017, Tesla ceased offering the 60 kWh software-limited battery option. The lowest-capacity option became the 75 kWh, and at the same time Tesla significantly reduced the software upgrade options for facelifted 60 and 70 models to be upgraded over-the-air to 75 (and rebadged at their next visit to a Tesla service center). In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to improve reliability; it also enabled dashcam and sentry mode capabilities. By 2017, in the Consumer Reports Car Reliability Survey, Tesla's position on the list had moved up four spots; the predicted reliability rating for Model S reached "above average" for the first time.

In March 2018 it was announced that Tesla had upgraded the Media Control Unit (MCU) to version 2. MCU 2 improved the performance of the center screen, enabling Tesla Arcade and Tesla Theater. The center display and the instrument cluster were driven by a single multi-core x86 Intel Atom CPU. In May 2018 Tesla released incomplete source code for the Model S on a GitHub repository as part of their software license compliance process in collaboration with the Software Freedom Conservancy.

In early 2021, with the introduction of an entirely new interior, now with landscape orientation of the MCU and more rear seat room, and a lightly modified exterior, Tesla changed the "Performance" and "Long Range" Model S branding in favor of "Plaid" and "Long Range," respectively. On June 10, 2021, the Model S Plaid was released at a delivery event at the factory with nearly 30 new owners taking delivery that evening. At the delivery event references were made to the return of the third-row seating, allowing a total of seven passengers, however, as of September 2021, no such option was listed on Tesla's website. Production ramped very slowly over the following months despite some prospective owners waiting since late-2020 for their cars. The Long Range version was EPA-rated to a new high of 405 miles when equipped with the standard, 19" wheels, making it the longest range EV in the world; the Plaid was listed at 396 miles of range.

Production

Main article: Tesla Factory

Tesla manufactures the Model S at the Tesla Factory in Fremont, California. For the European market, Tesla removes the battery pack, the electric motor and parts assembles and ships everything to Europe where it is reassembled at its European Distribution Center in Tilburg, the Netherlands.k

As of 2020, it was in the top 10 for domestic parts content.

Design

The Model S was styled by a team led by Franz von Volzhausen, who previously worked for Mazda North American Operations, who drew upon the Mercedes-Benz CLS 4-Door Coupe. It was designed with an electric powertrain in mind, unlike other electric vehicles where the manufacturer swaps an internal combustion engine with an electric motor. As a result, the Model S offers features such as a front trunk (a "frunk") in addition to a rear trunk and an enlarged crumple zone.

The Model S exists in several versions, differing in energy capacity (battery size), power (motor size), and equipment. It is classified as a full-size luxury car in the US, or as a "Large Car" (greater than or equal to 120 cu ft or 3.4 m3) or "Luxury Sedan" by the EPA. The Euro Car Segment classification is S-segment (sports car), or "Oberklasse" (F-segment) in Germany.

The roof was eventually transitioned to be made entirely of high-strength glass in ~2017, originally as an option but then made standard across the fleet. With this change the Panoramic sunroof was no longer an option.

Powertrain

The Model S powertrain has evolved since its first release, increasing in efficiency, power, and durability. In 2014 Tesla claimed that the Model S recovered the energy that went into producing it in fewer than 10,000 miles (16,000 km).

The rear axle has a traditional open differential. Models with Dual Drive dual motors also have an open differential on the front axles. The front and rear axles have no mechanical linkage – with dual motors, the power distribution among them is controlled electronically. With the introduction of the tri-motor Plaid version in mid-2021, new performance levels were achieved making the Model S Plaid the fastest accelerating production car in the world.

The powertrain provides regenerative braking power of more than 60 kW, which both reduces energy consumption and greatly reduces brake wear.

Battery

The battery pack includes thousands of identical 18650 battery cells, depending on the pack size. 18650 cells are cylindrical and are 18 mm in diameter, and 65 mm in height. Cells use a graphite/silicon anode and a nickel-cobalt-aluminum cathode with an aqueous electrolyte and lithium ions as charge carriers. Battery capacity has changed repeatedly as the technology has evolved, ranging from 60-100 kWH. As of 2021, the company preferred to cite vehicle range rather than battery capacity. The batteries are the car's heaviest component. E.g., the 85 kWh battery pack weighed 1,200 lb (540 kg). Tesla manufactures some Model S cells internally, and some in partnership with Panasonic.

Cell, group, module, pack

The P85 pack contained 7,104 lithium-ion battery cells in 16 modules wired in series (14 in the flat section and two stacked on the front). Each module contained 6 groups of 74 cells wired in parallel; the 6 groups were then wired in series within the module.

Lithium-ion batteries operate best at certain temperatures. The motor, controller and battery temperatures are controlled by a liquid cooling/heating circuit, and the battery is uninsulated. Waste heat from the motor heats the battery in cold conditions, and battery performance is reduced until a suitable battery temperature is reached. The battery can be pre-heated by a 6 kW internal heater, either from itself using battery power, or from a charger.

Lithium-ion batteries operate best at certain temperatures. The motor, controller and battery temperatures are controlled by a liquid cooling/heating circuit, and the battery is uninsulated. Waste heat from the motor heats the battery in cold conditions, and battery performance is reduced until a suitable battery temperature is reached. The battery can be pre-heated by a 6 kW internal heater, either from itself using battery power, or from a charger.

Placement

In contrast to most earlier battery electric vehicles including the Roadster, the battery pack of the Model S forms the floor of the vehicle between the axles, with several advantages:

  • The center of gravity height is 18 inches (460 mm) (about the same as a Lotus Elise), helping it to achieve a lateral acceleration of 0.9 g and rollover protection.
  • The bulk of the mass is between the axles, which lowers rotational inertia and allows it to turn more quickly for its weight.
  • The battery cage increases the rigidity of the passenger compartment, improving passive safety.

Energy consumption

S-mi-912

Under its five-cycle testing protocol, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rated the 90 kWh version at a combined fuel economy equivalent of 104 MPGe (2.26 L/100 km or 125 mpg‑imp), with an equivalent 102 mpg‑US (2.3 L/100 km; 122 mpg‑imp) in city driving and 107 mpg‑US (2.2 L/100 km; 129 mpg‑imp) on highways. Vehicle energy consumption is highly dependent on speed; the Model S requires 10 kW (14 hp) at 70 mph (110 km/h), and 31 kW (42 hp) at 100 mph (160 km/h). Ancillary equipment (climate control, battery conditioning, etc.) may consume 15-25%, depending on outside temperature.

Charger

The charge port is located behind a door in the left taillight.

During charging, the charge port pulses green. The pulse frequency slows as the charge level approaches full. When charging is complete, the light turns solid green.[136] The Model S comes equipped with a different charger and connector in North America versus other markets.

The Mobile Connector allows charging at up to 72 amps[137] and includes adapters for connecting to a variety of electricity sources.[138] The Tesla Wall Connector is available for installation at a home or business, and it allows charging at up to 19.2 kW in North America and 22 kW in Europe (although charging the vehicle at 11.5 kW requires the High Amperage Charger option on the vehicle).[138][139]

Tesla supports the SAE J1772, Type 2, and CHAdeMO charging standards via adapters.[138][139] SAE J1772 and Type 2 adapters are included in the appropriate regions, while the CHAdeMO adapter is available for purchase.[140]

North America

In North America, adapters for 120 volt NEMA 5-15 outlets, as well as an adapter for SAE J1772 charging stations, are included.[138] Other adapters including the popular NEMA 14-50 250V adapter can be purchased from Tesla for use with the Mobile Connector.

Charging times depend on the battery pack's state-of-charge, its capacity, the available voltage, and the available amperage. From a 120 volt/15 amp household outlet, the range increases by 3.75 miles (6 km) for every hour of charging. From a 10 kW, NEMA 14–50 240 V/50 A outlet (like those used by RVs or stoves), the charge rate is 28.75 miles (46 km) per hour. Using Tesla's 20 kW, 240 V High Power Wall Connector increases the rate to 57 miles (92 km) per hour if the car is configured with dual chargers (20 kW).[141]

Europe/Asia-Pacific

In Europe, adapters for CEE red 3P+N+E, CEE blue 2P+E, CEE 7, and BS 1363 are available (inclusion varies by country), and an adapter cable for connecting to chargers with a Type 2 connector is also included.[139][144]

Suspension

While some Model S's were built with a base, steel spring, suspension, the vast majority have a self-leveling, height-adjustable air suspension. This is accomplished via adjustable Bilstein shock absorbers controlled by the driver. The car lowers itself at highway speeds and can be set to a higher level to traverse steep driveways and rough terrain, mitigating the default low 6 in (150 mm) ground clearance and relatively long 116 in (2,900 mm) wheelbase.

The suspension system evolved in "over-the-air" software updates. The height adjustment feature remembers locations where the driver has requested higher clearance and automatically adjusts each time the car returns to that location.

The "Raven" update from early 2019 provided an enhanced "Smart Air Suspension" with automatic, dynamic suspension adjustments.

Autopilot

Autopilot uses cameras, radar and ultrasound to detect road signs, lane markings, obstacles, pedestrians, cyclists, traffic lights, and other vehicles. It includes adaptive cruise control and lane centering and supports semi-autonomous drive and parking capabilities.

Instrument panel

The instrument panel is located directly in front of the driver. It includes a 12.3-inch (310 mm) liquid-crystal display electronic instrument cluster that indicates speed, charge level, estimated range and active gear, as well as navigation directions.

Autoshift

Introduced in mid-2021, the updated Model S Plaid and Long Range had no steering column-mounted shift stalk. Instead, it used cameras to infer whether to shift into forward or reverse. The driver could override that automatic selection using the center touchscreen or buttons on the center pedestal, directly beneath the cell phone inductive chargers. Earlier versions controlled transmission selection via a shift stalk on the right side of the steering column.

Options

All versions of the Model S have the same body and normally seat five passengers. Other configurations were once available so as to allow for a third-row seat with two additional seats, for a total of seven passengers.

As of ~2016 or 2017, all seating materials were animal-free, made of synthetic fiber, with the steering wheel covers shifting to an animal-free material in late 2019 as well, making the cars entirely vegan.

The original impetus for this years-long transition to animal-free interiors may have been two shareholder proposals presented at the 2015 Tesla shareholders meeting in which the substantial environmental damage caused by animal agriculture was highlighted, along with the obvious conflict with Tesla's stated mission.[155] Other luxury brands slowly began eschewing animal product interiors in the years that followed.

Warranty and maintenance

The Model S is covered by a 4-year, 50,000-mile (80,000 km) limited warranty[156] that includes all standard equipment (excluding tires).[157] The warranty can be extended by 4 years or 50,000 miles (80,000 km).[157] The battery and powertrain are covered by an 8-year, 150,000-mile (240,000 km) warranty.[158] Warranty coverage includes a complementary loaner car when service is required.[159] Annual vehicle inspection and maintenance is optional, and not required to maintain coverage.[159] The fee covers a complete inspection, tire alignment, new brake pads, hardware upgrades and other maintenance items. In California only, Tesla offers insurance.

Versions

Signature/Signature Performance

Tesla allocated its first 1,000 units to its Signature and Signature Performance limited edition configurations, equipped with the 85 kWh battery pack.

A custom Model S was designed for the Oceanic Preservation Society in collaboration with Obscura Digital, and was used to project images of endangered animals to help educate the public about ongoing Holocene mass extinction, as featured in the 2015 documentary Racing Extinction.

60/60D/P85

The base Model S 60 was released with 60 kWh battery capacity and used a 270 kW (362 hp) and 441 N⋅m (325 ft⋅lb) motor.

Dual motor, AWD variations (60D) became available in 2014.

The Performance variant (P85) offered a three-phase, four-pole AC induction 416 hp (310 kW) and 443 ft⋅lb (601 N⋅m) rear-mounted electric motor with copper rotor.[163]

The company claimed a drag coefficient of Cd=0.24,[164] lower than any other production car when released.[165] Independent measurements by Car and Driver in May 2014 confirmed the figure.[135]

70D

The 70D replaced the 60, 60D, and P85, offering all-wheel drive and an improved range of 240 miles (385 km).[166][167]

In January 2019, Tesla made the 100D the base version and discontinued the 75D version.[168]

85D

The 85D replaced the rear drive unit with a smaller motor, while a second motor of similar size was added to the front wheels. The resulting AWD car offered comparable power and acceleration to the rear wheel drive. The 85D offered a 2% (5-mile) range increase and 11% increase in top speed over the 85.[169]

P85D

The P85D was a dual-motor, all-wheel-drive vehicle. It had a governed top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h)[170] and it accelerated from 0 to 60 miles per hour (0 to 97 km/h) in 3.2 seconds (tested to 3.1 seconds), under "Insane Mode", with 1g of acceleration.[170][171] Total output reached 345 kW (463 hp) despite the two motors because they did not give their maximum power at the same time.

The high-power rear-drive unit was retained, while the additional front-drive motor increased power by about 50%, increasing acceleration and top speed.

P90D

The P90D had a top speed of 155 mph (249 km/h) and it could accelerate from 0 to 60 miles per hour (0 to 97 km/h) in 2.8 seconds, despite the lower total motor power, in part due to the improved traction of the all-wheel drive powertrain. An optional "Ludicrous Mode" hardware package improved the 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) time to 2.8 seconds at 1.1g.[173][174][175]

The P90D combined a front axle power of 259 horsepower (193 kW) and rear axle power of 503 horsepower (375 kW) for a 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 2.8 seconds. The acceleration of the P90D can reach 1.1g, described by Tesla as "faster than falling".[57][176]

In June 2017, Tesla discontinued selling the 90 kWh battery pack option

P100D

The P100D outputs 439 kW (589 hp) and 1,248 N⋅m (920 lbf⋅ft) torque on a dynamometer.[178]

As of March 2017, P100D was the world's quickest production vehicle with a NHRA rolling start to 60 mph (97 km/h) in Motor Trend tests in 2.28 seconds (acceleration clock started after 0.26 seconds at 5.9 mph (9.5 km/h)) in Ludicrous mode.

Owing to overheating issues (the radiator has no blower),[99] multiple uses of Ludicrous mode required rest periods to protect the battery.[180][181] According to Motor Trend, selecting the "Yes, bring it on!" option for maximum acceleration "initiates a process of battery and motor conditioning, wherein the battery temperature is raised slightly and the motors are cooled using the air-conditioning system. It usually takes just a few minutes, longer in extreme ambient temperatures or after repeated runs. You should expect to wait a minimum of 10 minutes in-between runs."[179]

It offered an EPA estimated range of 315 mi (507 km).[182] It was the first electric vehicle to have an EPA estimated range greater than 300 miles (485 km).[101][183]

Raven

In 2019, the Performance and Long Range Plus variants offered the "Raven" powertrain.[184] It included the permanent magnet synchronous reluctance motor from the Tesla Model 3 as the front motor.[184] The motor was more powerful and more efficient than its predecessor.[184] The Raven powertrain included a new adaptive air suspension.[184]

Plaid

The Palladium refresh was announced in January 2021 with initial deliveries in June 2021. The refresh included a new interior, new powertrain, suspension and thermal management amongst other improvements.[185] The refresh originally consisted of three models, the Long Range (LR), the Plaid, and the Plaid+, although the Plaid+ was cancelled shortly before deliveries began. The "Plaid" name is applied to the performance model and is a reference to the only speed faster than "Ludicrous" in the movie Spaceballs.[186]

The Plaid model includes one motor for the front axle and two motors for the rear axle; its starting price was $131,100.[187] At the core of the Plaid's performance are innovative new motors featuring a carbon-wrapped rotor to allow much higher motor RPM.[188] Musk said that this presented challenges, because carbon and copper (the rotor material) have different thermal expansion rates.[189] The Long Range model includes the front motor and a single rear motor; its starting price was $80k, but it was raised to $85k soon after deliveries began.[190] "Track Mode" allows for adjustment from 100% FWD to 100% RWD in 5% increments, traction control strength in 21 stages and regenerative braking strength from 0% to 100% in 5% increments.[191]

At its debut, the Palladium models had the lowest drag coefficient of any production car, with Cd=0.208.[192] The new HVAC system uses a heat pump that Tesla says provides 30% longer range and requires 50% less energy in cold weather conditions than the previous Model S.[193] Charging was said to increase by 187 miles (301 km) in 15 minutes (on a 250 kW Supercharger).[192] The interior features a non-circular "yoke" steering wheel, a landscape-oriented center screen, a screen for the rear passengers, increased headroom and legroom, particularly in the rear seat area, lower noise via acoustic glass, a new, customizable user interface, and improved gaming (via the AMD RDNA 2 GPU).[192][194] The company estimated that deliveries will reach 1000/week in Q3 of 2021.[190]

The Plaid has 1,020 horsepower (760 kW) and 1,050 pound-feet (1,420 N⋅m) of torque. It was independently tested by Motor Trend to go 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 2.07 seconds (1.98 on a prepped drag strip[clarification needed]) and cover a quarter-mile (400 m) in 9.34 seconds at 152.2 mph (244.9 km/h).[195] Tesla said it will reach a 200 mph (320 km/h) top speed.[190]

Tesla Model S Plaid front


Tesla Model S Plaid rear
Plaid-model s-959938
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